Sweatin' It Out: The Forgotten Ground Personnel of the 8th Air Force
American Air Museum. FRE – 7614. Ground personnel change the tyres and the engine of a B-17 Flying Fortress. Roger Freeman Collection. https://www.americanairmuseum.com/archive/media/media-394977jpg
An Introduction
When examining the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), particularly the 8th Air Force, the primary focus is usually on the heroic feats of the bomber and fighter airmen who endured horrific conditions in the skies above Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe – with over 26,000 men were killed flying operations with the 8th Air Force during the Second World War. The attrition of intense and sustained aerial combat strained both the men and ground forces of the USAAF and in-turn the 350,000 total personnel of the 8th Air Force would all have to play an individual role in the conflict.
Studying the previously published material on this subject, we often find common phrases such as "Sweatin' Out the Mission," which have become immortalised by both famous wartime and post-war media. Now embedded in popular and historical culture, they are usually to the ‘go-to’ when referring to the different experiences of those waiting on the ground for aircraft to return. Although these phrases and understandings are not inaccurate and form the basis of many people's perceptions of the air war, there is a wealth of depth to the individuals who regularly "Sweated it Out.”
It is undeniable that ground personnel of the USAAF receive partial attention or are massively overlooked while examining the organisation's history. For These men and women were so critical in maintaining the Allied air effort, ensuring it operated as effectively and successfully as possible. So, it is within the aim of this article, I hope to bring attention to these frequently forgotten individuals, emphasising their significance to the Allied war campaign, while also briefly exploring their responsibilities and their overall influence on the result of the Second World War in Europe.
The Foundations Are Laid - The Birth of the 8th Air Force
On December 8th, 1941, the United States entered the Second World War after the naval and air forces of Japan attacked the US Naval Station at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii. Following President Franklin D Roosevelt’s declaration of war, it would be understood that the newly formed USAAF would lead the response against Japanese aggression. In the weeks and months following the attack, there was a steady increase in aircraft production and sudden rapid enlistment into the USAAF, enabling the air force to gather enough personnel and aircraft for overseas operations. Commanding General of the United States Army Air Forces, General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold understood that the most effective way to strike back against Japan and Germany was through strategic air power. As a result, on January 28th, 1942, the 8th Air Force was created and activated in Savannah, Georgia. The 8th would hold the responsibility of leading the American air assault in Western Europe, targeting important German industrial and economic sites crucial to the war effort. By the summer of 1942, units of the newly formed VIII Bomber Command began arriving in the European Theatre to commence operations against Germany.
On August 17th, 1942, the peaceful calm and tranquility of the southern English countryside was interrupted by the sudden noise of American-made Wright Cyclone engines as VIII Bomber Command initiated the first major daylight bombing raid over Europe. Spearheading the American force was the 97th Bombardment Group (BG) based at RAF Grafton Underwood, Northamptonshire, England. The raid consisted of eighteen B-17E Flying Fortress Bombers led by the commanding officer of the 340th Bombardment Squadron (BS), Major Paul Warfield Tibbetts, Jr. (Major Tibbetts who would later fly and command the B-29 Superfortress, “Enola Gay” of the 509th Composite Group, dropping the atomic weapon on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6th, 1945)
Alongside Tibbetts flew an important passenger, General Ira C. Eaker (Commander of VIII Bomber Command) who aboard a B-17 commanded a second flight of American aircraft on the raid. For General Eaker, the mission was a test of his theory regarding daylight strategic bombing and whether the United States had the capability to do so. Like many prominent air theorists of the inter-war period, Eaker believed that the enemy could be defeated solely through a concentrated strategic bombing campaign and the subsequent destruction of important cities and key infrastructure would no doubt force the capitulation of an enemy nation.
The target for the bomber force would be the marshalling yards at Rouen-Sotteville in Northern France. Once over the target, the B-17s dropped their ordinance and destroyed with surprising accuracy a series of key railway buildings and infrastructure. The success of the raid illustrated the capabilities of VIII Bomber Command, paving the way for the development of daylight strategic bombing as well as the birth of the Combined Bomber Offensive, which the Allies would undertake the following year.
American Air Museum. FRE 877 - “A bomber crew of the 97th Bombardment Group with their B-17 Flying Fortress.” Photograph. Roger Freeman Collection.
But for the USAAF to sustain such a colossal air effort in Europe and achieve the desired results of ‘round-the-clock bombing’ that General Eaker envisioned, he knew that his bomber and fighter force would need to be supported by thousands of ground personnel, ranging from weather specialists to mechanics. Luckily for Eaker, before the United States entered the Second World War, General “Hap” Arnold had emphasised the importance of logistical and support infrastructure. This was in part due to the lessons learnt from the First World War, where the United States Army Air Service (USAAS) established quickly that without key infrastructure on the ground, aerial operations and their impact would be minimal. Through his pre-war reforms to the Air Force and the creation of the USAAF in 1941, General Arnold introduced a centralised command structure that united all air services under one command, improving coordination both in the air and on the ground. Arnold knew that for the USAAF to fulfil its role as an effective fighting force, there had to be an efficient system of maintenance and logistical supply that ensured the air force could operate domestically as well as overseas. Subsequently, to support VIII Fighter and Bomber Commands, the VIII Air Service Command was formed in 1942, commanded by Major General. Walter H. Frank and later Major General. Henry J. F. Miller. Working alongside the Services of Supply (SOS), the VIII Air Service Command provided the logistical support for each Air Division and through to Group and Squadron level.
The deployment of the 8th Air Force in England also presented a logistical challenge in locating suitable airfields for Eaker’s bomber and fighter force. At the outset of the American air offensive, the plan was for the 8th Air Force to operate as independently as possible, minimising reliance on RAF facilities. However, in the preliminary stages of the war, it was nearly impossible for VIII Bomber and Fighter Commands to function solely on their own. Consequently, both air forces collaborated, sharing the use of RAF and USAAF facilities for transportation, intelligence, and logistical support to sustain their operations.
The building and advancement of airfields and facilities for the USAAF in England quickly turned into one of England's biggest engineering accomplishments. Between 1942 and 1945, numerous air bases were built throughout Southern England to house the soldiers and planes involved in the Allied Air Campaign. The project entailed flattening terrain and constructing miles of concrete runways and hardstands, while also creating necessary facilities like support buildings, housing, and hangars. Local construction companies assisted American engineering and construction staff in completing the task.
Despite these developments, it was still noted that as the war progressed and the capabilities of the USAAF expanded overseas, there was still an urgent need for specific ground personnel. This rise in demand prompted the launch of massive recruiting initiatives targeted at hiring both men and women for critical ground support roles. Recruitment figures increased dramatically, and at its peak in 1944, the USAAF had around 2.4 million personnel active stateside as well as overseas. Such figures are clearly demonstrated by analysing the personnel statistics: The Army Air Forces Statistical Digest, 1945 revealed that the number of Enlisted Engineer personnel increased from 49,721 in January 1943 to 111,790 in January 1945. Studying the figures further, estimates indicate that up to 70% of USAAF personnel were in non-flying positions, outnumbering aircrew by a large margin.
“Keeping Em’ Flying!” - The Ground & Maintenance Crews
Beginning with what are often considered as some of the most crucial personnel in the 8th Air Force are the ground mechanics and maintenance crews. These skilled individuals played a significant role in ensuring the proper functioning and upkeep of the aircraft and material, contributing to the overall operational effectiveness of the fighter or bomber unit. Each operational 8th Air Force aircraft needed at least thirty ground maintenance crew members to maintain its airworthiness and the quantity of these numbers greatly exceeded the number of aircrews stationed at the base.
A typical mission day for mechanics and maintenance crews would begin in the early hours of the morning. While the aircrew were rising and heading to eat a tense breakfast, the ground crews would be preparing the aircraft for flight. Re-fueling was typically a priority when readying for an operation, with every aircraft having to be filled with appropriate fuel based on the mission length. Beside the refuelers, a team of armourers would begin ferrying and loading heavy ordinance such as bombs and machine gun ammunition onto the aircraft. After finishing the tasks required for airworthiness, final inspections were completed to confirm the aircraft's readiness for flight. Any minor issues were addressed and communicated to the Crew Chief, who then passed on the information to the Pilot.
In the sudden event that an aircraft required repairs, ground crews frequently worked overnight to ensure that it was ready for the next day's operations. The majority of ground crew shared the responsibility for the aircraft and crew's well-being, while also taking pride in their specific “ship.” Ensuring their aircraft was in good condition, operational, and prepared for flight promptly was crucial and through their work, a bond would often developoften developed between the air and ground crews, particularly the Crew Chief who held sole responsibility for the aircraft he was assigned to. In cases where an aircraft was either damaged or did not make it back, the ground crews experienced the same anger, sorrow, and frustration as everyone else at the airfield. Such an example of this can be found when a B-24, 41-23722, of the 328th Bomb Squadron, 94th Bomb Group, returned to base with approximately 200 holes of numerous sizes.
The crew chief, Master Sergeant Charles A. Chambers, upon viewing the damaged aircraft, "forgot all respect for rank and reportedly assailed the pilot with: 'Goddammit, Lieutenant—what the hell have you been doin’ to my ship!'"
American Air Museum. "Ground personnel repair a B-17G Flying Fortress inside a hangar at High Halden.” Photograph. Roger Freeman Collection.
Despite such setbacks and challenges, ground crews would quickly master the meticulous process of thoroughly stripping and repairing any disabled aircraft at the base. However, the VIII Service Command did not consistently share this level of enthusiasm, especially, during the early years of VIII Bomber Command’s air offensive. It fell upon the Air Service Command to determine if damaged planes were too costly to repair, and to then proceed with salvage or necessary alterations. In some cases, decisions were made before the Service Command could assess aircraft, with many instances of aircraft with minor damage and as little as 100 flying hours being completely ransacked for parts by over-eager ground crews.
While working on aircraft, ground crews would erect tents around the hardstands and dispersals where the majority of their work took place. It was not uncommon for the ground crew to end up living on the hardstand in these tents, which were often personalised for comfort. Wooden ammunition and spare parts crates were repurposed into flooring, walls, and stoves were installed providing warmth or a well-deserved mug of coffee during the harsh winter months. In some instances where tents were in short supply, small structures were built from material scavenged from around the base becoming known as “line-shacks,” serving the same purpose.
Ground support personnel are often perceived as facing fewer risks compared to that of pilots and combat crews. However, it is important to recognise that they encountered significant dangers while carrying out their duties, such as the task of handling live ordinance and other explosives carrying the risk of accidental detonation. If an accident did occur, the results were often catastrophic with some of the worst occurring at the bases of Alconbury, Deenethorpe, and Ridgewell. In addition to the dangers of working with explosives and live aircraft, much like the aircrew, ground personnel suffered with fatigue due to long working hours, especially during the build-up to the Allied invasion of Europe in 1944. The intensity of raids increased and so did the pressure on the maintenance and logistical services that kept the 8th Air Force operational. Colonel LLoyd H Watnee, 44th Bombardment Group noted that during the build-up to the Normandy invasion: “Fatigue was showing on everyone including the ground personnel who got less rest than the combat crews. They were up day and night keeping our bombers flying. Not enough can be said for these men.”
However, in the midst of a demanding working environment, the ground crews managed to play a pivotal role in uplifting the spirits of aviators and base personnel. Apart from conducting thorough maintenance on aeroplanes, they infused a personal touch by creating distinctive nose art on the aircraft. This artwork often displayed romantic messages, names, popular culture references, or pin-up models, all of which held great appeal for young men at that time. The presence of such art not only boosted the morale of the crew but also provided them with a sense of camaraderie and solace amidst the challenging combat conditions they faced.
American Air Museum. UPL 30088 - “B-17F 42-29673 'Old Bill' having its nose art painted on by nose art was painted by Bruce Bairnsfather.”
Recovery & Rescue - The Brave Emergency & Medical Crews of the 8th Air Force
Working diligently alongside the maintenance crews and mechanics were teams of trained emergency and medical personnel. In the sudden event of an aviation-related incident, crews of firefighters, medical personnel and military police would rush to the scene. Structurally, each Bomber or Fighter Group would have a Fire Fighting Platoon, a Military Police Company, and a Medical Dispensary all fore-filling the frontline role as emergency first-response crews.
Firstly, medical personnel stationed at the airfield were often among the first to gather alongside the runways or hardstands, ready to assist as soon as the aircraft returned. This was crucial given that the planes and crews often required immediate medical attention after returning from their missions. Ambulances were stocked with essential first aid supplies in advance, and once a casualty was on board, they would swiftly transport them to the nearest Medical Dispensary or Station Hospital. The medical staff at an 8th Air Force airbase were regarded with equal importance as the mechanics and engineers. Typically, each airfield was equipped with a Station Hospital, which was well-stocked and well-prepared to deliver medical care for a wide variety of injuries.
Additional medical procedures like dental care and public health screenings were also performed at the base, usually by individuals who held similar roles in civilian life, both from within and outside the airfield.
American Air Museum. UPL 37442 - “398th Bomb Group. An injured crewman being transferred from his aircraft into an ambulance.” Nuthampstead Airfield Museum Collection.
Assigned to each Fighter or Bomber Group was a designated Flight Surgeon, a specialised medical officer, who was responsible for the health and fitness of all active aircrew stationed at the base. Typically, two Flight Surgeons would attend all mission briefings and observe mission departures. They would then participate in post-mission debriefings, specifically focusing on evaluating the effects of "combat fatigue" and providing preventative care to assist airmen in coping with psychological stress. In line with these individuals, a base Chaplain would also offer spiritual guidance to personnel of different faiths, conduct religious services and confessions, and offer personal counselling to those impacted by combat operations.
In the vicinity of the medical teams, firefighting crews were present, overseeing the aircraft and anticipating their arrival. When an aircraft was damaged and had to make an emergency landing, the Fire Fighting Platoons assigned to the base took on the crucial task of rescue and fire suppression. These platoons were equipped with cutting-edge firefighting technology and received specialised training to handle the aftermath of aviation-related emergencies. Frequently, these platoons played a vital role in saving the lives of aircrew and dealing with dangerous situations, often at the expense of their own safety with their contributions forming an essential part of the emergency infrastructure that supported the 8th Air Force.
Military law enforcement played a crucial role in maintaining security, order, and discipline at the airbases of the 8th Air Force. These Military Police officers would become essential in ensuring the security of personnel and the airbases they were assigned to. Some of their responsibilities involved patrolling and safeguarding vital areas of the airfield, including entrance gates, perimeter fences, and munitions stores, thus upholding military law. Despite such security measures, on many airfields there was always talk of spies and espionage so consequently MPs would work to discourage such discussions or actively investigate any claims of such ensuring the upkeep of security. In collaboration with fire and medical crews, Military Police Units participated in the safeguarding and investigation of critical sites and assets, including aircraft incidents and equipment retrieval.
Logistics & Supply – Keeping the 8th Air Force Operational
The logistics and supply personnel, acknowledged as the backbone of the 8th Air Force, like many military organisations, played a vital role in the unit's operational achievements. Many of these individuals served within the Air Service Command, which encompassed specialised units including transportation, maintenance, ordnance, chemical, and quartermaster supply companies. These dedicated units worked tirelessly to support the overall mission.
Although the number of logistics personnel and organisations was incredibly vast, below is a summary of each of the specific units that comprised the Air Service Command: First of all, the Ordnance Supply companies held the critical responsibility of storing and distributing all munitions used by the 8th Air Force. They adeptly handled the intricate tasks related to transporting and storing these weapons. In addition to the Ordnance Supply, the Chemical Companies were tasked with safely handling and storing chemical materials and munitions, including incendiary bombs and aircraft refuelling. In the event of a chemical attack, these units would swiftly respond to protect personnel and conduct decontamination procedures for individuals or equipment exposed to chemical contaminants. Lastly, the Quartermaster Companies oversaw the handling and delivery of essential supplies such as food, equipment, and other necessities. Personnel assigned to the Quartermaster Companies played a pivotal role in ensuring the effective operation of the 8th Air Force and its’ members.
Planning & Execution: The Communication & Intelligence Personnel of the 8th Air Force
In the background of every operation lay a wide array of intelligence and communications personnel who meticulously planned numerous missions conducted by the 8th Air Force during its time in Britain. By examining the organisational structure, one can gain insight into how these divisions operated and how they contributed to the efficient intelligence system.
All administrative personnel from the group level upwards in the USAAF units were to be composed of four staff members who reported to the Executive Officers and ultimately to the Commanding Officer (CO). In the United States Army, staff positions included personnel, intelligence, operations, and supplies, which were commonly denoted as S-1, S-2, S-3, and S-4 at the group level. Intelligence personnel were tasked with diligently interpreting directives from senior command and transforming them into effective strategies for an operation. They meticulously consolidated all available intelligence on the proposed target, including photographs and reconnaissance data. The collection and analysis of aerial photo reconnaissance allowed for missions to be planned with greater accuracy and attention to detail. Additionally, thorough assessments of pertinent information were conducted for planning the optimal ingress and egress routes, such as the locations of hostile anti-aircraft positions and the strength of enemy fighter capabilities. Alongside intelligence personnel, groups of meteorological teams diligently prepared for each mission by thoroughly assessing the expected weather conditions along the route and target area.
American Air Museum. FRE 11575 - Staff Sergeant Lloyd Baskerville, of the 385th Bomb Group (Intelligence Section) looks for maps and information on a mission target. Roger Freeman Collection.
Accurate weather reporting was absolutely crucial for the success of raids. Factors like cloud cover, wind, and overall visibility significantly impacted the effectiveness of our unit during operations. Once this vital information was gathered, a comprehensive briefing was provided to the aircrew prior to the mission, ensuring that our aviators were well informed and prepared for the task ahead. In addition to intelligence staff, communications personnel also played a critical role in coordinating large-scale operations that involved hundreds of aircraft. These operations relied on a series of synchronised takeoffs, the formation of complex aircraft formations, and engaging enemy targets. Their contributions were essential to the success of these complex and high-stakes missions.
Beyond the Frontlines: The Forgotten Women in Uniform
Subsequently, the 8th Air Force's intelligence and communications sector required a smooth flow of information due to its complexity, and women played an important role in this effort. For many women who joined the Women’s Army Corps (WACs) during World War II were not only involved in nursing, as usually assumed, but held various important administrative and logistical roles within the US Army Air Forces (USAAF). They served as typists, clerks, and secretaries, managing crucial military information to support the communication infrastructure of the USAAF and the 8th Air Force with their duties including organising and handling sensitive operational details. Women also played a crucial role in providing medical support to the 8th Air Force overseas. Their tireless efforts in caring for wounded service members contributed significantly to the effective functioning of the 8th Air Force. Their dedication and lifesaving care were instrumental in ensuring that the personnel received the necessary support for their health and well-being. This aspect of their contribution, however, has been widely acknowledged in historical accounts.
American Air Museum. FRE 5515 - “Coffee and doughnuts transported by Jeep and dispensed by a Red Cross girl, to men of the 55th Fighter Group working near the fuel dump - on the morning of 12th April 1944.” Roger Freeman Collection.
Another important organisation that female contribution is usually overlooked was within the American Red Cross (ARC) with both male and female service members receiving much-needed relief thanks in large part to the efforts of the ARC. In order to provide a break from the rigours of military life, female volunteers organised social events such as dances, concerts, educational classes, and entertainment shows. Moreover, they ran static and mobile canteens that provided hot food, coffee, and baked goods, creating a distinctively American and homely atmosphere on the base. Female members of the Red Cross also offered individual assistance, like helping wounded airmen write letters home or listening sympathetically to those suffering from combat fatigue. In many instances, relationships were formed between ARC personnel and 8th Air Force servicemen. The troops' mental and emotional health was preserved thanks in large part to these efforts, which allowed them to perform their jobs with renewed focus and vigour.
Some Final Thoughts
In summary, it is reasonable to conclude that the individuals mentioned in this article receive insufficient attention in the study of the air war and the 8th Air Force's role during World War II. Typically, the achievements of bomber crews during wartime attract the most academic focus, and this is rightfully justified. However, without the countless men and women on the ground, much like many contemporary military organisations, operations would not be as effective or efficient. The statistics presented in the article highlight the significant importance of these non-flying roles and their overall impact on the effectiveness of a modern-day air force.
The Second World War’s air war was unprecedented, in terms of the vast number of aircraft and personnel involved, as well as the destructive power of aerial warfare. Yet, nearly 80 years later, the crucial importance of ground personnel remains as relevant today as it was in 1943. While technology has evolved, the core principles of airpower have arguably remained unchanged. Therefore, I hope this article, despite being a brief overview, has brought attention to the often-overlooked men and women of the 8th Air Force who played a vital role in securing the Allied victory in Europe.
By Ben Lawrence
Primary Sources:
Historical Section, ETOUSA. “Chapter 1, Mission.” In VIII Air Force Service Command History - 1942-44, 2-23. 1946. National Archives.
United States. Army Air Forces. Army Air Forces Statistical Digest, World War II. Washington, D.C.: Office of Statistical Control, 1945. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA542518
The U.S. Army Air Forces' Official Story of the VIII Bomber Command's First Year Over Europe. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1944.
The U.S. Army Air Forces' Official Story of the VIII Bomber Command's First Year Over Europe. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1944. https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/4113/
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Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth: A History of the Units, Men and Machines of the US 8th Air Force. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1989.
Ronald H. Bailey, Fortresses of the Big Triangle First. East Anglia: East Anglia Books, 1986.
Buckley, John. Air Power in the Age of Total War, Taylor & Francis Group, 1998.
Holland, Malcolm. Sweatin' Out the Mission: 8th Air Force Ground Support in World War Two. Stroud: The History Press, 2010.
Office of Air Force History. The U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Volume 1 - Plans and Early Operations: Jan 1939-Aug 1942. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983.
Bodle, Peter W. Soldiers with Spanners: The Ground Crews' View During the Second World War. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen and Sword Aviation, 2008.
Loska, David A. Eighth Air Force Depot Maintenance & Logistics Leadership in World War II. Air Power History 66, No. 3, 2019. Pp. 29–45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26802351.